PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
مطالب این بخش شامل فصل های ذیل است که به لسان انگلیسی بوده و در اختیار شما قرار میگیرد !
فصل اول : اصول مدیریت (Principles of Management)
فصل دوم : تصمیم گیری مدیریتی (Managerial Decision Making )
فصل سوم : هدفگذاری و بلان گیری در سازمان (Establishing Organizational Goals & Plans )
فصل جهارم : قواعد ابتدایی ساختار سازمان ها (Basic Elements of Organizational Structures )
فصل بنجم : انگیزه (Motivation )
فصل ششم : رهبری
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
مطالب این بخش شامل فصل های ذیل است که به لسان انگلیسی بوده و در اختیار شما قرار میگیرد !
فصل اول : اصول مدیریت (Principles of Management)
فصل دوم : تصمیم گیری مدیریتی (Managerial Decision Making )
فصل سوم : هدفگذاری و بلان گیری در سازمان (Establishing Organizational Goals & Plans )
فصل جهارم : قواعد ابتدایی ساختار سازمان ها (Basic Elements of Organizational Structures )
فصل بنجم : انگیزه (Motivation )
فصل ششم : رهبری
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Chapter I
Principles of Management
Learning Objectives:
Explain the four functions of management and other major elements in the management process
Describe three common work methods managers use and 10 major roles managers play
Delineate three major types of managerial skills
Distinguish between effectiveness and efficiency as related to organizational performance
Levels of management
How management education and experience prepare managers
What is management?
Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment for individuals working together in groups to achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently.
Getting things done through other people.
Management is the achievement of organizational goals by engaging in the four major functions of planning, organizing, leading and controlling.
Managerial Functions:
Planning: is the management function involving goal setting and deciding how best to achieve goals.
Organizing: is the management function focusing on allocating and arranging human and non-human resources to plans can be successfully carried out.
Leading: is the management function involving influencing others to engage in work behaviors needed to reach organizational goals.
Controlling: is the management function regulating organizational activities so actual performance conforms to expected standards.
Management Process
Knowledge base and key management skills
Performance (goals achievement)
Management Functions
Work methods and roles
Work agenda
Work Methods
Mintzberg (1980)
Unrelenting pace: Too much busy for daily routine activities
Brevity/ Variety and Fragmentation: Not paying 100% attention to a single point
Verbal contacts and networks: short and brief through electronically means
Require networking
Some Possible Currencies
Resources: giving budget increase, personnel, space etc.
Assistance: helping with project or taking on unwanted tasks
Information: furnishing organizational and technical knowledge
Recognition: acknowledging effort
Visibility: providing the change to be known by higher-ups
Advancement: giving tasks that can aid in promotion
Personal Support: providing personal and emotional backing
Understanding: listening to others’ concern
How to use currencies
Think of each member as a potential network member
Study your network members
Be aware of your own strengths and weaknesses so that you could get advantage of opportunities
Gear your exchange transactions so both parties can come out winners
Managerial roles
A role is an organized set of behaviors associated with a particular office or position.
Types
Managerial knowledge, skills, and performance
Promoting innovation: The entrepreneurial role
Innovation
Intrapreneurs
Intrapreneurship
Idea champion
Sponsor
Orchestrator
Managerial Job Types
Vertical Dimension: Hierarchical level
Top Level Managers
Middle Level managers
First Level Managers
Horizontal Dimension
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Chapter 5
Managerial Decision Making
Learning Objectives:
Explain the major types of problems facing decision makers and describe the differences between programmed and non-programmed decisions
Contrast rational and non-rational models of managers as decision makers
Describe the steps in an effective decision making process
Explain how to overcome barriers associated with accepting the problem challenge and searching for sufficient alternatives
Describe how to recognize common decision making biases and avoid the decision escalation phenomenon
Assess the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making
Explain three basic ingredients and four stages of creativity
Describe the major techniques for enhancing group creativity
The Nature of Managerial Decision Making
Each manager has to make a decision at his own level
Effective decision making generally includes four steps:
Identify the problem
Generate alternative solutions
Evaluate and choose among the alternative solutions
Implement and monitor the chosen solutions
Types Of Problems Decision Makers Face
There are three types of problems decision makers face:
Crisis: A serious difficulty requiring immediate action
Non-crisis: An issue requiring resolution but without the simultaneous importance and immediacy characteristics of a crisis
Opportunity: A situation offering strong potential for significant organizational actions are taken
Differences in Decision Making Situations
Programmed Decisions: Decisions made in routine, repetitive, well-structured situations by use of predetermined decision rules
Non programmed Decisions: Decisions for which predetermined decision rule are impractical due to novel and/or ill-structured situations
Uncertainty: A condition in which the decision maker must choose a course of action with incomplete knowledge of consequences following implementation
Risk: The possibility a chosen action could lead to a losses rather than intended results
Managers as Decision Makers
The Rational Model: Model suggesting managers engage in completely rational decision processes, ultimately make optimal decisions, and possess and understand all information relevant to their decisions at the time they make them.
Non-Rational Models: Models suggesting information gathering and processing limitations make it difficult for manager to make optimal decisions.
Bounded Rationality: Concept suggesting the ability of managers to be perfectly rational in making decisions is limited by factors such as cognitive capacity and time constraints.
Satisfying Model: Model stating managers seek alternatives only until they find one which looks satisfactory rather than seeking an optimal decision.
Incremental Model: Model stating managers make the smallest response possible to reduce the problem to at least a tolerable level.
Rubbish-bin Model: Model stating manager behave in virtually a random way in making non-programmed decisions.
Steps in Efficient Decision Making Process
Descriptive Decision-Making Models: Models of decision making attempting to document how managers actually make decisions.
Normative Decision-Making Models: Models of decision making attempting to prescribe how managers should make decisions
1 - Identify the problem
Scan the environment for changing circumstances
Categorize the situation as a problem or non problem
2 – Generate Alternative Solutions
Restrict criticism of alternatives
Freewheel to stimulate thinking
Offer as many ideas as possible
Combine and improve on ideas
Evaluate and Choose Alternatives
Evaluate feasibility
Evaluate quality
Evaluate acceptability
Evaluate costs
Evaluate reversibility
Evaluate ethics
Implement and Monitor The Chosen Solutions
Plan the implementation of the solution
Be sensitive to the decision’s effects on others
Develop follow-up mechanisms
Overcoming Barriers To Effective Decision Making
Complacency: A situation in which individuals either do not see the sign of danger of ignore it.
Defensive Avoidance: A situation where individuals deny the importance of a condition or deny any responsibility for it.
Panic: A situation where an individual becomes so upset that he seeks a way to make a decision
Deciding to decide: A situation in which an individual finally plans to make a decision.
Searching for Sufficient Alternatives
Print Media
Outdoor Media
Electronic Media
Inter-Personal Communications
Managing Diversity : Group Decision Making
Group Decisions are commonly made by more than one person.
Advantages of Group Decision Making
More Information
Increased in number of diversity of alternatives
Greater understanding of final decision
Members develop knowledge and skills for future
Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Time consuming
Chances of great disagreement
Domination of discussion by one or two members
Group discussion may emphasize more on achievement of agreement
Promoting Innovation : The Creativity Factor in Decision Making
The process of developing an idea, concept or discovery which is novel to its viewer.
Basic Ingredients
Domain-relevant skills: Technical skills gained by experience in a field
Creativity-relevant skills: Thinking oriented skills which result in creation and development of new ideas
Stages of Creativity
Preparation: Gathering initial information:
Defining the task
Generate alternatives
Comparing alternatives
Incubation: Searching for the most unusual alternatives
Illumination: An unusual idea is found
Verification: Testing the idea and finding whether it is valid or not
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Chapter 6
ESTABLISHING ORGANIZATIONAL
GOALS AND PLANS
Overall Planning Process
Goals: Future target or end result an organization wishes to achieve.
Plan: A mean through which you could get to your goal.
Mission: The fundamental reason for which an organization exists.
The Nature of Organizational Goals
Benefits of Goals:
It increases performance
It clarifies the expectations
Goals facilitates controlling since it sets a benchmark
Goals can increase motivation
Levels of Goals
Strategic Goals: Broadly defined targets or future results set by top management
Tactical Goals: Targets or future results usually set by middle management for specific department
Operational Goals: Targets or future results set by lower management that address specific measurable outcomes required from the lower levels
How Goals Facilitate Performance
Goal Content:
Challenging: A challenge leads to higher performance
Attainable: Achievable
Specific and Measurable: Clear and quantified
Time Limited: Within the boundaries of a limited time
Relevant: It should be related to the type of operation an organization performs
Goal Commitment
One’s attachment to or determination to reach a goal.
Factors of Goal Commitment
Supervisory authority: Individuals and groups often commit themselves to a goal when the goal and reasons for it are explained by someone with supervisory authority.
Peer and Group Pressure: Pressure from peers and work-group members enhances goal commitment when everyone’s efforts are focused.
Public Display: Recent evidence suggests commitment to difficult goals is higher when commitment is public than when private.
Expectations of Success: Goal commitment is more likely when individuals or groups have high expectations of success. That is, individual become committed when they believe they have a good chance of performing well on tasks needed to reach the goal.
Incentives and Rewards: Goal commitment is enhanced by incentives and rewards. Incentives are offered during goal-setting, while rewards occur upon goal achievement.
Participation: Although research shows participation is not needed to gain goal commitment, individual participation in goal-setting can foster commitment.
Work Behavior
The four factors influencing work behavior:
Direction: Goals direct attention and action toward activities related to the goals, rather than toward other activities.
Effort: Goal commitment boost effort by mobilizing energy. Individuals will try harder when goals are difficult than when easy.
Persistence: It means maintaining
direction and effort to reach a goal.
Planning: A manager needs to plan according to his goal. If the goal is difficult, it requires more planning. However, if goal is easy, then little planning is required.
Linking Goals and Plans
Levels of Plans
Strategic plans: Detailed action steps mapped to reach strategic goals
Tactical plans: Means charted to support implementation of the strategic plan and achievement of tactical goals
Operational plans: Means devised to support implementation of tactical plans and achievement of operational goals
Plans according to Extent of Recurring Use
Single-Use Plans: Plans aimed at achieving a specific goal which, once reached, will most likely not recur in the future
Program: Comprehensive plan coordinating a complex set of activities related to a major non-recurring goal
Project: Plan coordinating a set of limited scope activities which do not need to be divided into several major projects to reach a major non-recurring goal
Standing Plans: Plans providing ongoing guidance for performing recurring activities.
Policy: General guide specifying broad parameters within which organization members are expected to operate in pursuit of organizational goals
Procedure: prescribed series of related steps to be taken under certain recurring circumstances
Rules: Statement spelling out specific actions to be taken or not taken in a given situation.
Management by Objective
Process through which specific goals are set collaboratively for the organization as a whole and every unit and individual within it; the goals are then used as a basis for planning, managing organizational activities, and assessing and rewarding contributions.
Steps in MBO Process
Develop overall organizational goals: Setting general goals for entire organization
Establish specific goals (objectives) for various departments, subunits and individuals: Coordinating goals are set for various organizational levels so each goal helps reach the overall goals set in step 1
Formulate action plans: Once goals are set, action plans must be developed focusing on methods or activities to reach particular goals
Implement and maintain self-control: A basic notion underlying MBO is once goals are set and action plans determined, individuals should be given latitude in carrying out their activities
Review progress periodically: Periodic reviews are important to ensure plans are implemented as expected and goals will be met
Appraise performance: At the end of a goal-setting cycle which usually runs for a period of a year managers meet with each subordinate to appraise performance over the cycle
Strengths and Weaknesses of MBO
Strengths:
Aids coordination of goals and plans from top management
Helps clarify priorities and expectations
Facilitates vertical and horizontal communication
Fosters employee motivation
Weaknesses:
Tends to falter without strong, continual commitment
Necessitates considerable training of managers
Can be misused as a punitive device
May cause overemphasis on quantitative goals
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Chapter 9
BASIC ELEMENTS OF
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
The Nature of Organization Structure
Definition:
Formal pattern of interactions and coordination designed by management to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving organizational goals
Organizational Design:
The process of developing an organization structure is organization design. An aid to visualizing structure is the organization chart. Therefore, we describe this chart before analyzing the four main organization structure elements in more detail.
Job Design
Work Specification:
Degree to which work necessary to achieve organizational goals is broken down into various jobs
Job Design:
Specification of task activities associated with a particular job
Approaches to Job Design
Job Simplification: The process of configuring jobs so job-holders have only a small number of narrow activities to perform.
Job Rotation: Practice of periodically shifting worker through a set of jobs in a planned sequence
Job Enlargement: Allocation of a wider variety of similar tasks to a job to make it more challenging
Job Enrichment: Process of upgrading the job task mix in order to increase significantly potential for growth, achievement, responsibility and recognition.
Managing Diversity: Alternative Work Scheduled
Work schedule: specifying certain core hours when individuals are expected to be on the job and then allowing flexibility in starting and finishing times as long as individuals work the total number of required hours per day.
Compressed work-week: work schedule whereby employees work four 10-hour days or some similar combination, rather than the usual five 8-hour days.
Job sharing: work practice in which or more people share single full-time job
Flextime: Work schedule specifying certain core hours when individuals are expected to on the job and then allowing flexibility in starting and finishing times as long as individuals work the total number of required hours per day.
Types of Departmentalization
Departmentalization: clustering of individuals into units or departments and larger units to facilitate achieving organizational goal
Methods of Vertical Co-ordination
Linking of activities at the top of the organization with those at the middle levels to achieve organizational goals
The Role of Formalization:
Degree to which written policies, rules, procedures, job descriptions, and other documents specify what actions are (or are not) to be taken under a given set of circumstances
Span of Management
The trend toward downsizing
Span of Management/Span of Control: Number of subordinates who reports directly to a specific manager.
Factors influencing span of management:
Low interaction requirements: When work is such that subordinates can operate without frequent interaction with each other and with their superiors, mangers can supervise more individuals
High competence levels: High job-related skills and abilities of managers and or subordinates make it possible for managers to handle more subordinates.
Work similarity: When employees in a given unit do similar work, it is easier for a manager to give adequate supervision than when they vary widely.
Low problem frequency and seriousness: When problems, particularly serious ones, are infrequent, there is less need for managerial attention.
Physical proximity: When subordinates are located closely to each other, managers can co-ordinate activities more easily.
Few non-supervisory duties of manager: Managers can handle more subordinates when they have few non supervisory duties to perform, such as doing part of the work themselves.
Considerable available assistance: Managers can supervise more subordinates when they have considerable additional help, such as assistant and secretarial support.
High motivational possibilities of work: When the work offers a high challenge, subordinates are more likely to increase performance levels due to opportunities to exercise discretion, making it less necessary for continual managerial involvement.
Types of Structure According to Span
Tall structure: Structure with many hierarchical levels and narrow spans of control.
Flat structure: Structure with few hierarchical level and wide spans of control.
Centralization VS Decentralization
Centralization: Extent to which power and authority retained at top organizational levels.
Decentralization: Extent to which power and authority are delegated to low levels.
Four Main Factors of Centralization and Decentralization
Large size: It is difficult for top level managers in large organizations to have time or knowledge to make all major decisions
Geographic dispersion: Top executives often find it impossible to keep up with operational details at various locations.
Technological complexity: It is typically difficult for upper management to keep up technologically.
Environmental uncertainty: Rapid change interferes with top management’s ability to assess situations quickly enough
Delegation
Responsibility: Obligation to carry out duties and achieve goals related to a position
Authority: Right make decisions, carry out actions, and direct others in matters related to the duties and goals of a position
Accountability: Requirement to provide satisfactory reasons for significant deviations from duties or expected results
Delegation: Assignment of part of a manager’s work to others, along with both responsibility and authority necessary to achieve expected results.
Line and Staff Positions
A line position has authority and responsibility for achieving the organization’s major goals.
A staff position has the primary purpose of giving staff positions specialized expertise and assistance.
Sometimes the term staff refers to personal staff, those assisting particular positions as needed (e.g. Admin assistant)
Line Authority: Authority following the chain of command established by the formal hierarchy.
Functional Authority: Authority of staff departments over others in the organization in matters related directly to their respective functions
Promoting Innovation: Methods of Horizontal Co-ordination
Linking activities across departments at similar levels.
Slack resources: Cushion of resources that facilitates adaptation to internal and external pressures, as well as initiation of changes
Information system: An important, growing means of horizontal co-ordination is the use of information systems, mainly computerized ones to co-ordinate parts of the organization.
Lateral relations: Co-ordination of efforts through communicating and problem solving with peers in other departments of units rather than referring most issues up the hierarchy for resolution
Chapter 12
MOTIVATION
Definition
Force energizing behavior, giving direction to behavior, and underlying the tendency to persist.
Ability X Motivation X Environmental Condition = Performance
Need Theories
Two-factor theory
By Frederick Herzberg
Hygiene factors are necessary to keep workers from feeling dissatisfied, but only motivators can lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated.
ERG theory
Because of criticism of Maslow’s hierarchy-of-needs theory, Clayton Alderfer (1972) proposed an alternative, ERG theory.
E = Existence needs
R = Relatedness needs
G = Growth needs
Needs including carious forms of material and physiological desires, such as food and water, as well as work-related forms such as pay, fringe benefit and physical working conditions
Needs addressing our relationships with significant others, such as families, friendship groups and professional groups
Needs impelling creativity and innovation, along with the desire to have productive impact on our surroundings.
Satisfaction progression principle
Principle stating that satisfaction of one level of need encourages concern with the next level
Frustration regression principle
Principle stating that if we are continually frustrated in our attempts to satisfy a higher-level need, we may cease to be concerned about that need
Acquired-needs theory
By David C. McClelland
Our needs are acquired or learned through experience.
Although such needs are produced by a range of conditions, sometimes a specific event can deeply influence our desire.
Desire to accomplish challenging tasks and achieve a standard of excellence in one’s work
Desire to maintain warm, friendly relationships with others
Desire to influence others and control one’s environment
Need for Power
Personal Power
Need for power in which individuals want to dominate others for the sake of demonstrating their ability to wield power
Institutional Power
Need for power in which individuals focus on working with others to solve problems and further organizational goals
Cognitive Theories
Definition
Theories attempting to isolate thinking patterns we use in deciding whether or not to behave in a certain way.
Expectancy theory
The theory suggests that consider three main issues before expending the effort needed to perform at a given level.
Effort-performance expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required performance level.
Performance-outcome expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes
Valence
Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or rewards
Equity theory
Theory arguing that we prefer situations of balance or equity, which exists when we perceive the ratio of our inputs and outcomes to be equal to the ratio of inputs and outcomes for a comparison other
Goal Setting Theory
The goal setting theory discusses that while setting goals we should be careful about the following points:
Reinforcement Theory
Theory arguing that our behavior can be explained by consequences in the environment
Social Theory
Major Components:
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Chapter
LEADERSHIP