صفحه تبادل اطلاعات برنامه یکساله اداره تجارت DBA

Diploma in Business Administration Program Students' Page

صفحه تبادل اطلاعات برنامه یکساله اداره تجارت DBA

Diploma in Business Administration Program Students' Page

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

 

مطالب این بخش شامل فصل های ذیل است که به لسان انگلیسی بوده و در اختیار شما قرار میگیرد ! 

فصل اول : اصول مدیریت (Principles of Management

فصل دوم : تصمیم گیری مدیریتی (Managerial Decision Making

فصل سوم : هدفگذاری و بلان گیری در سازمان (Establishing Organizational Goals & Plans

فصل جهارم : قواعد ابتدایی ساختار سازمان ها (Basic Elements of Organizational Structures

فصل بنجم : انگیزه (Motivation ) 

فصل ششم : رهبری

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

 

مطالب این بخش شامل فصل های ذیل است که به لسان انگلیسی بوده و در اختیار شما قرار میگیرد ! 

فصل اول : اصول مدیریت (Principles of Management

فصل دوم : تصمیم گیری مدیریتی (Managerial Decision Making

فصل سوم : هدفگذاری و بلان گیری در سازمان (Establishing Organizational Goals & Plans

فصل جهارم : قواعد ابتدایی ساختار سازمان ها (Basic Elements of Organizational Structures

فصل بنجم : انگیزه (Motivation ) 

فصل ششم : رهبری

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Chapter I

Principles of Management

Learning Objectives:

Explain the four functions of management and other major elements in the management process

Describe three common work methods managers use and 10 major roles managers play

Delineate three major types of managerial skills

Distinguish between effectiveness and efficiency as related to organizational performance

Levels of management

How management education and experience prepare  managers

What is management?

Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment for individuals working together in groups to achieve organizational goals effectively and efficiently.

Getting things done through other people.

Management is the achievement of organizational goals by engaging in the four major functions of planning, organizing, leading and controlling.

Managerial Functions:

Planning: is the management function involving goal setting and deciding how best to achieve goals.

Organizing: is the management function focusing on allocating and arranging human and non-human resources to plans can be successfully carried out.

Leading: is the management function involving influencing others to engage in work behaviors needed to reach organizational goals.

Controlling: is the management function regulating organizational activities so actual performance conforms to expected standards.

Management Process

Knowledge base and key management skills

            Performance  (goals achievement)

            Management Functions

Work methods and roles

            Work agenda

Work Methods

Mintzberg (1980)

Unrelenting pace: Too much busy for daily routine activities

Brevity/ Variety and Fragmentation: Not paying 100% attention to a single point

Verbal contacts and networks: short and brief through electronically means

Require networking

Some Possible Currencies

Resources: giving budget increase, personnel, space etc.

Assistance: helping with project or taking on unwanted tasks

Information: furnishing organizational and technical knowledge

Recognition: acknowledging effort

Visibility: providing the change to be known by higher-ups

Advancement: giving tasks that can aid in promotion

Personal Support: providing personal and emotional backing

Understanding: listening to others’ concern

How to use currencies

Think of each member as a potential network member

Study your network members

Be aware of your own strengths and weaknesses so that you could get advantage of opportunities

Gear your exchange transactions so both parties can come out winners

Managerial roles

A role is an organized set of behaviors associated with a particular office or position.

Types

  1. Interpersonal: building relationships
  2. Informational: receiving and transmitting information
  3. Decisional: making significant decisions

Managerial knowledge, skills, and performance

  1. Knowledge base
  2. Key management skills
    1. Technical
    2. Human
    3. Coceptual
  3. Performance
    1. Effectiveness
    2. Efficiency

Promoting innovation: The entrepreneurial role

Innovation

Intrapreneurs

Intrapreneurship

Idea champion

Sponsor

Orchestrator

Managerial Job Types

Vertical Dimension: Hierarchical level

Top Level Managers

Middle Level managers

First Level Managers

Horizontal Dimension

  1. Functional managers
  2. General managers
  3. Project managers

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Chapter 5

Managerial Decision Making

Learning Objectives:

Explain the major types of problems facing decision makers and describe the differences between programmed and non-programmed decisions

Contrast rational and non-rational models of managers as decision makers

Describe the steps in an effective decision making process

Explain how to overcome barriers associated with accepting the problem challenge and searching for sufficient alternatives

Describe how to recognize common decision making biases and avoid the decision escalation phenomenon

Assess the advantages and disadvantages of group decision making

Explain three basic ingredients and four stages of creativity

Describe the major techniques for enhancing group creativity

The Nature of Managerial Decision Making

Each manager has to make a decision at his own level

Effective decision making generally includes four steps:

Identify the problem

Generate alternative solutions

Evaluate and choose among the alternative solutions

Implement and monitor the chosen solutions

Types Of  Problems Decision Makers Face

There are three types of problems decision makers face:

Crisis: A serious difficulty requiring immediate action

Non-crisis: An issue requiring resolution but without the simultaneous importance and immediacy characteristics of a crisis

Opportunity: A situation offering strong potential for significant organizational actions are taken

Differences in Decision Making Situations

Programmed Decisions: Decisions made in routine, repetitive, well-structured situations by use of predetermined decision rules

Non programmed Decisions: Decisions for which predetermined decision rule are impractical due to novel and/or ill-structured situations

Uncertainty: A condition in which the decision maker must choose a course of action with incomplete knowledge of consequences following implementation

Risk: The possibility a chosen action could lead to a losses rather than intended results

Managers as Decision Makers

The Rational Model: Model suggesting managers engage in completely rational decision processes, ultimately make optimal decisions, and possess and understand all information relevant to their decisions at the time they make them.

Non-Rational Models: Models suggesting information gathering and processing limitations make it difficult for manager to make optimal decisions.

Bounded Rationality: Concept suggesting the ability of managers to be perfectly rational in making decisions is limited by factors such as cognitive capacity and time constraints.

Satisfying Model: Model stating managers seek alternatives only until they find one which looks satisfactory rather than seeking an optimal decision.

Incremental Model: Model stating managers make the smallest response possible to reduce the problem to at least a tolerable level.

Rubbish-bin Model: Model stating manager behave in virtually a random way in making non-programmed decisions.

Steps in Efficient Decision Making Process

Descriptive Decision-Making Models: Models of decision making attempting to document how managers actually make decisions.

Normative Decision-Making Models: Models of decision making attempting to prescribe how managers should make decisions

1  - Identify the problem

Scan the environment for changing circumstances

Categorize the situation as a problem or non problem

2 – Generate Alternative Solutions

Restrict criticism of alternatives

Freewheel to stimulate thinking

Offer as many ideas as possible

Combine and improve on ideas

Evaluate and Choose Alternatives

Evaluate feasibility

Evaluate quality

Evaluate acceptability

Evaluate costs

Evaluate reversibility

Evaluate ethics

Implement and Monitor The Chosen Solutions

Plan the implementation of the solution

Be sensitive to the decision’s effects on others

Develop follow-up mechanisms

Overcoming Barriers To Effective Decision Making

Complacency: A situation in which individuals either do not see the sign of danger of ignore it.

Defensive Avoidance: A situation where individuals deny the importance of a condition or deny any responsibility for it.

Panic: A situation where an individual becomes so upset that he seeks a way to make a decision

Deciding to decide: A situation in which an individual finally plans to make a decision.

Searching for Sufficient Alternatives

Print Media

Outdoor Media

Electronic Media

Inter-Personal Communications

Managing Diversity : Group Decision Making

Group Decisions are commonly made by more than one person.

Advantages of Group Decision Making

More Information

Increased in number of diversity of alternatives

Greater understanding of final decision

Members develop knowledge and skills for future

Disadvantages of Group Decision Making

Time consuming

Chances of great disagreement

Domination of discussion by one or two members

Group discussion may emphasize more on achievement of agreement

Promoting Innovation : The Creativity Factor in Decision Making

The process of developing an idea, concept or discovery which is novel to its viewer.

Basic Ingredients

Domain-relevant skills: Technical skills gained by experience in a field

Creativity-relevant skills: Thinking oriented skills which result in creation and development of new ideas

Stages of Creativity

Preparation: Gathering initial information:

Defining the task

Generate alternatives

Comparing alternatives

Incubation: Searching for the most unusual alternatives

Illumination: An unusual idea is found

Verification: Testing the idea and finding whether it is valid or not

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Chapter 6

ESTABLISHING ORGANIZATIONAL

GOALS AND PLANS

Overall Planning Process

Goals: Future target or end result an organization wishes to achieve.

Plan: A mean through which you could get to your goal.

Mission: The fundamental reason for which an organization exists.

The Nature of Organizational Goals

Benefits of Goals:

It increases performance

It clarifies the expectations

Goals facilitates controlling since it sets a benchmark

Goals can increase motivation

Levels of Goals

Strategic Goals: Broadly defined targets or future results set by top management

Tactical Goals: Targets or future results usually set by middle management for specific department

Operational Goals: Targets or future results set by lower management that address specific measurable outcomes required from the lower levels

How Goals Facilitate Performance

Goal Content:

Challenging: A challenge leads to higher performance

Attainable: Achievable

Specific and Measurable: Clear and quantified

Time Limited: Within the boundaries of a limited time

Relevant: It should be related to the type of operation an organization performs

Goal Commitment

One’s attachment to or determination to reach a goal.

Factors of Goal Commitment

Supervisory authority: Individuals and groups often commit themselves to a goal when the goal and reasons for it are explained by someone with supervisory authority.

Peer and Group Pressure: Pressure from peers and work-group members enhances goal commitment when everyone’s efforts are focused.

Public Display: Recent evidence suggests commitment to difficult goals is higher when commitment is public than when private.

Expectations of Success: Goal commitment is more likely when individuals or groups have high expectations of success. That is, individual become committed when they believe they have a good chance of performing well on tasks needed to reach the goal.

Incentives and Rewards: Goal commitment is enhanced by incentives and rewards. Incentives are offered during goal-setting, while rewards occur upon goal achievement.

Participation: Although research shows participation is not needed to gain goal commitment, individual participation in goal-setting can foster commitment.

Work Behavior

The four factors influencing work behavior:

Direction: Goals direct attention and action toward activities related to the goals, rather than toward other activities.

Effort: Goal commitment boost effort by mobilizing energy. Individuals will try harder when goals are difficult than when easy.

Persistence: It means maintaining

direction and effort to reach a goal.

Planning: A manager needs to plan according to his goal. If the goal is difficult, it requires more planning. However, if goal is easy, then little planning is required.

Linking Goals and Plans

Levels of Plans

Strategic plans: Detailed action steps mapped to reach strategic goals

Tactical plans: Means charted to support implementation of the strategic plan and achievement of tactical goals

Operational plans: Means devised to support implementation of tactical plans and achievement of operational goals

Plans according to Extent of Recurring Use

Single-Use Plans: Plans aimed at achieving a specific goal which, once reached, will most likely not recur in the future

Program: Comprehensive plan coordinating a complex set of activities related to a major non-recurring goal

Project: Plan coordinating a set of limited scope activities which do not need to be divided into several major projects to reach a major non-recurring goal

Standing Plans: Plans providing ongoing guidance for performing recurring activities.

Policy: General guide specifying broad parameters within which organization members are expected to operate in pursuit of organizational goals

Procedure: prescribed series of related steps to be taken under certain recurring circumstances

Rules: Statement spelling out specific actions to be taken or not taken in a given situation.

Management by Objective

Process through which specific goals are set collaboratively for the organization as a whole and every unit and individual within it; the goals are then used as a basis for planning, managing organizational activities, and assessing and rewarding contributions.

Steps in MBO Process

Develop overall organizational goals: Setting general goals for entire organization

Establish specific goals (objectives) for various departments, subunits and individuals: Coordinating goals are set for various organizational levels so each goal helps reach the overall goals set in step 1

Formulate action plans: Once goals are set, action plans must be developed focusing on methods or activities to reach particular goals

Implement and maintain self-control: A basic notion underlying MBO is once goals  are set and action plans determined, individuals should be given latitude in carrying out their activities

Review progress periodically: Periodic reviews are important to ensure plans are implemented as expected and goals will be met

Appraise performance: At the end of a goal-setting cycle which usually runs for a period of a year managers meet with each subordinate to appraise performance over the cycle

Strengths and Weaknesses of MBO

Strengths:

Aids coordination of goals and plans from top management

Helps clarify priorities and expectations

Facilitates vertical and horizontal communication

Fosters employee motivation

Weaknesses:

Tends to falter without strong, continual commitment

Necessitates considerable training of managers

Can be misused as a punitive device

May cause overemphasis on quantitative goals

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Chapter 9

BASIC ELEMENTS OF

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

The Nature of Organization Structure

Definition:

Formal pattern of interactions and coordination designed by management to link the tasks of individuals and groups in achieving organizational goals

Organizational Design:

The process of developing an organization structure is organization design. An aid to visualizing structure is the organization chart. Therefore, we describe this chart before analyzing the four main organization structure elements in more detail.

Job Design

Work Specification:

Degree to which work necessary to achieve organizational goals is broken down into various jobs

Job Design:

Specification of task activities associated with a particular job

Approaches to Job Design

Job Simplification: The process of configuring jobs so job-holders have only a small number of narrow activities to perform.

Job Rotation: Practice of periodically shifting worker through a set of jobs in a planned sequence

Job Enlargement: Allocation of a wider variety of similar tasks to a job to make it more challenging

Job Enrichment: Process of upgrading the job task mix in order to increase significantly potential for growth, achievement, responsibility and recognition.

Managing Diversity: Alternative Work Scheduled

Work schedule: specifying certain core hours when individuals are expected to be on the job and then allowing flexibility in starting and finishing times as long as individuals work the total number of required hours per day.

Compressed work-week: work schedule whereby employees work four 10-hour days or some similar combination, rather than the usual five 8-hour days.

Job sharing: work practice in which or more people share single full-time job

Flextime:  Work schedule specifying certain core hours when individuals are expected to on the job and then allowing flexibility in starting and finishing times as long as individuals work the total number of required hours per day.

Types of Departmentalization

Departmentalization: clustering of individuals into units or departments and larger units to facilitate achieving organizational goal

  1. Functional: structures put positions into units based on expertise, skill, and similarly of work activity.
  2. Divisional: structures group them based on product or market similarity
  3. Hybrid: structures combine aspects of functional and divisional forms, with some activities grouped by function and others by products or market.
  4. Matrix: structures superimpose, or overlay, horizontal divisional reporting relationships over an hierarchical functional structure.

Methods of Vertical Co-ordination

Linking of activities at the top of the organization with those at the middle levels to achieve organizational goals

The Role of Formalization:

Degree to which written policies, rules, procedures, job descriptions, and other documents specify what actions are (or are not) to be taken under a given set of circumstances

Span of Management
The trend toward downsizing

Span of Management/Span of Control: Number of subordinates who reports directly to a specific manager.

Factors influencing span of management:

Low interaction requirements: When work is such that subordinates can operate without frequent interaction with each other and with their superiors, mangers can supervise more individuals

High competence levels: High job-related skills and abilities of managers and or subordinates make it possible for managers to handle more subordinates.

Work similarity: When employees in a given unit do similar work, it is easier for a manager to give adequate supervision than when they vary widely.

Low problem frequency and seriousness: When problems, particularly serious ones, are infrequent, there is less need for managerial attention.

Physical proximity: When subordinates are located closely to each other, managers can co-ordinate activities more easily.

Few non-supervisory duties of manager: Managers can handle more subordinates when they have few non supervisory duties to perform, such as doing part of the work themselves.

Considerable available assistance: Managers can supervise more subordinates when they have considerable additional help, such as assistant and secretarial support.

High motivational possibilities of work: When the work offers a high challenge, subordinates are more likely to increase performance levels due to opportunities to exercise discretion, making it less necessary for continual managerial involvement.

Types of Structure According to Span

Tall structure: Structure with many hierarchical levels and narrow spans of control.

Flat structure: Structure with few hierarchical level and wide spans of control.

Centralization VS Decentralization

Centralization: Extent to which power and authority  retained at top organizational levels.

Decentralization: Extent to which power and authority are delegated to low levels.

Four Main Factors of Centralization and Decentralization

Large size: It is difficult for top level managers in large organizations to have time or knowledge to make all major decisions

Geographic dispersion: Top executives often find it impossible to keep up with operational details at various locations.

Technological complexity: It is typically difficult for upper management to keep up technologically.

Environmental uncertainty: Rapid change interferes with top management’s ability to assess situations quickly enough

Delegation

Responsibility: Obligation to carry out duties and achieve goals related to a position

Authority: Right make decisions, carry out actions, and direct others in matters related to the duties and goals of a position

Accountability: Requirement to provide satisfactory reasons for significant deviations from duties or expected results

Delegation: Assignment of part of a manager’s work to others, along with both responsibility and authority necessary to achieve expected results.

Line and Staff Positions

A line position has authority and responsibility for achieving the organization’s major goals.

A staff position has the primary purpose of giving staff positions specialized expertise and assistance.

Sometimes the term staff refers to personal staff, those assisting particular positions as needed (e.g. Admin assistant)

Line Authority: Authority following the chain of command established by the formal hierarchy.

Functional Authority: Authority of staff departments over others in the organization in matters related directly to their respective functions

Promoting Innovation: Methods of Horizontal Co-ordination

Linking activities across departments at similar levels.

Slack resources: Cushion of resources that facilitates adaptation to internal and external pressures, as well as initiation of changes

Information system: An important, growing means of horizontal co-ordination is the use of information systems, mainly computerized ones to co-ordinate parts of the organization.

Lateral relations: Co-ordination of efforts through communicating and problem solving with peers in other departments of units rather than referring most issues up the hierarchy for resolution

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Chapter 12

MOTIVATION

Definition

Force energizing behavior, giving direction to behavior, and underlying the tendency to persist.

Ability X Motivation X Environmental Condition = Performance

Need Theories

  1. Hierarchy-of-needs theory: (Developed by Abraham Maslow during 1960s)

    1. Physiological needs: Survival needs such as food, water and shelter
    2. Safety needs: Needs pertaining to the desire to feel safe, secure and free from threats to our existence. E.g. Life insurance, job security and etc.
    3.  Belongingness needs: Needs involving the desire to affiliate with and be accepted by others. E.g. Good coworkers, peers, superiors, customers and etc.
  1. Esteem needs: Needs related to the two pronged desire to have a positive self-image and to have our contributions valued and appreciated by others. E.g. Important Projects, Prestigious Office Location
  2. Self actualization needs: Needs pertaining to the requirement of developing our capabilities and reaching our full potential. E.g. Challenging Projects, Innovation Opportunities

Two-factor theory

By Frederick Herzberg

Hygiene factors are necessary to keep workers from feeling dissatisfied, but only motivators can lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated.

ERG theory

Because of criticism of Maslow’s hierarchy-of-needs theory, Clayton Alderfer (1972) proposed an alternative, ERG theory.

E = Existence needs

R = Relatedness needs

G = Growth needs

  1. Existence needs:

Needs including carious forms of material and physiological desires, such as food and water, as well as work-related forms such as pay, fringe benefit and physical working conditions

  1. Related needs:

Needs addressing our relationships with significant others, such as families, friendship groups and professional groups

  1. Growth needs:

Needs impelling creativity and innovation, along with the desire to have productive impact on our surroundings.

Satisfaction progression principle

Principle stating that satisfaction of one level of need encourages concern with the next level

Frustration regression principle

Principle stating that if we are continually frustrated in our attempts to satisfy a higher-level need, we may cease to be concerned about that need

Acquired-needs theory

By David C. McClelland

Our needs are acquired or learned through experience.

Although such needs are produced by a range of conditions, sometimes a specific event can deeply influence our desire.

  1. Need for achievement (nAch):

Desire to accomplish challenging tasks and achieve a standard of excellence in one’s work

  1. Need for affiliation (nAff):

Desire to maintain warm, friendly relationships with others

  1. Need for power (nPow):

Desire to influence others and control one’s environment

Need for Power

Personal Power

Need for power in which individuals want to dominate others for the sake of demonstrating their ability to wield power

Institutional Power

Need for power in which individuals focus on working with others to solve problems and further organizational goals

Cognitive Theories

Definition

Theories attempting to isolate thinking patterns we use in deciding whether or not to behave in a certain way.

Expectancy theory

The theory suggests that consider three main issues before expending the effort needed to perform at a given level.

Effort-performance expectancy

Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required performance level.

Performance-outcome expectancy

Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to certain outcomes

Valence

Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or rewards

Equity theory

Theory arguing that we prefer situations of balance or equity, which exists when we perceive the ratio of our inputs and outcomes to be equal to the ratio of inputs and outcomes for a comparison other

Goal Setting Theory

The goal setting theory discusses that while setting goals we should be careful about the following points:

  1. Attention and action
  2. Mobilizing efforts
  3. Increasing persistence
  4. The amount of inputs
  5. The accurate process
  6. The outputs and outcomes

Reinforcement Theory

Theory arguing that our behavior can be explained by consequences in the environment

  1. Positive reinforcement: The type of reinforcement which causes a particular action to happen again.
  2. Negative reinforcement: The type of reinforcement that causes a  particular behavior not to be repeated again.
  3. Scheduled reinforcement: The type of reinforcement which is presented on the basis of timeline.

Social Theory

Major Components:

  1. Symbolic processes
  2. Vicarious learning
  3. Self control

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Chapter

LEADERSHIP

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